Table 1Descriptive Statistics and Comparison for Study Variables by Area (n=128,735).
Variables |
Category |
Total |
Urban |
Rural |
χ2 or t |
p
|
n (%) or M±SD |
Overall
|
128,735 (100.0) |
82,695 (64.2) |
46,040 (35.8) |
|
|
|
Individual level factors
|
|
Gender |
Male |
59,515 (46.2) |
37,589 (45.5) |
21,926 (47.6) |
55.96 |
<0.001 |
Female |
69,220 (53.8) |
45,106 (54.5) |
24,114 (52.4) |
|
|
|
Age (years) |
19–34 |
31,694 (24.6) |
24,385 (29.5) |
7,309 (15.9) |
4734.94 |
<0.001 |
35–49 |
46,547 (36.2) |
31,118 (37.6) |
15,429 (33.5) |
|
|
50–64 |
50,494 (39.2) |
27,192 (32.9) |
23,302 (50.6) |
|
|
Mean ± SD |
44.18±12.34 |
42.33±12.31 |
47.51±11.67 |
343.81 |
<0.001 |
|
Marital status |
Living with spouse |
89,930 (69.9) |
55,050 (66.6) |
34,880 (75.8) |
2086.46 |
<0.001 |
Divorced, and bereaved |
12,334 (9.6) |
7,470 (9.0) |
4,864 (10.6) |
|
|
single |
26,397 (20.5) |
20,126 (24.4) |
6,271 (13.6) |
|
|
|
Education |
Uneducated |
1,308 (1.0) |
411 (0.5) |
897 (2.0) |
11227.84 |
<0.001 |
Elementary school |
12,604 (9.8) |
4,290 (5.2) |
8,314 (18.1) |
|
|
Middle school |
14,142 (11.0) |
6,958 (8.4) |
7,184 (15.6) |
|
|
High school |
43,982 (34.2) |
27,288 (33.0) |
16,694 (36.3) |
|
|
≥ College/University |
56,522 (44.0) |
43,629 (52.8) |
12,893 (28.0) |
|
|
|
Job |
Non-manual |
53,376 (41.5) |
39,112 (47.3) |
14,264 (31.0) |
8941.17 |
<0.001 |
Manual |
39,495 (30.7) |
17,879 (21.6) |
21,616 (47.0) |
|
|
Housewife, unemployed |
35,774 (27.8) |
25,636 (31.0) |
10,138 (22.0) |
|
|
|
Household monthly income (10,000won) |
<100 |
9,064 (7.3) |
3,579 (4.5) |
5,485 (12.3) |
5945.42 |
<0.001 |
100–199 |
18,378 (14.8) |
9,627 (12.1) |
8,751 (19.7) |
|
|
200–299 |
23,915 (19.2) |
14,273 (17.9) |
9,642 (21.7) |
|
|
300–399 |
23,344 (18.8) |
15,650 (19.6) |
7,694 (17.3) |
|
|
≥400 |
49,604(39.9) |
36,763(46.0) |
12,841(28.9) |
|
|
|
Body mass index |
Normal (BMI<25 kg/m2) |
95,037 (75.1) |
62,766 (76.6) |
32,271 (72.5) |
260.79 |
<0.001 |
Obesity (BMI≥25 kg/m2) |
31,444 (24.9) |
19,189 (23.4) |
12,255 (27.5) |
|
|
|
Self-rated health |
Very good |
38,580 (30.0) |
24,178 (29.2) |
14,402 (31.3) |
1022.98 |
<0.001 |
Neither good nor |
51,339 (39.9) |
35,269 (42.7) |
16,070 (34.9) |
|
|
Poor |
38814 (30.2) |
23,246 (28.1) |
15,568 (33.8) |
|
|
|
No. of Chronic diseases |
0 |
92,973 (72.3) |
62,368 (75.5) |
30,615 (66.6) |
1209.11 |
<0.001 |
1 |
22,271 (17.3) |
12,979 (15.7) |
9,292 (20.2) |
|
|
≥2 |
13,351 (10.4) |
7,293 (8.8) |
6,058 (13.2) |
|
|
|
Community level factors
|
|
Satisfaction with safety |
0.76±0.11 |
0.70±0.08 |
0.87±0.06 |
385.11 |
<0.001 |
|
Satisfaction with natural environment |
0.79±0.12 |
0.74±0.10 |
0.90±0.06 |
315.15 |
<0.001 |
|
Satisfaction with life environment |
0.79±0.07 |
0.78±0.07 |
0.81±0.07 |
69.84 |
<0.001 |
|
Satisfaction with public transportation |
0.71±0.14 |
0.78±0.10 |
0.58±0.11 |
342.02 |
<0.001 |
|
Satisfaction with health service |
0.68±0.13 |
0.73±0.11 |
0.59±0.11 |
231,05 |
<0.001 |
|
Social cohesion |
0.45±0.25 |
0.28±0.10 |
0.75±0.11 |
777.71 |
<0.001 |
|
Social networks |
7.70±1.37 |
6.87±0.74 |
9.20±0.89 |
502.42 |
<0.001 |
|
Social activity participation |
0.73±0.07 |
0.75±0.06 |
0.69±0.09 |
142.94 |
<0.001 |
|
Presence of cycle paths |
19,837 (15.4) |
15,554 (18.8) |
4,283 (9.3) |
2,050.31 |
<0.001 |
|
Number of exercise facilities |
63.84 (67.1) |
84.21±72.30 |
27.24 (33.6) |
159.75 |
<0.001 |
|
Number of sports parks |
2.26 (3.4) |
1.96±3.68 |
2.53 (2.7) |
29.31 |
<0.001 |
|
Number of hiking trails |
8.17 (12.7) |
10.57±14.96 |
3.86 (4.8) |
93.55 |
<0.001 |
|
Number of urban parks |
28.17 (45.8) |
42.18±51.55 |
3.02 (10.7) |
161.09 |
<0.001 |
|
MVPA |
77,746 (60.4) |
50,907 (61.6) |
26,839 (58.3) |
131.80 |
<0.001 |
Table 2The relationship between individual level factors and moderate or vigorous physical activity of adults in urban and rural areas.
Variables |
Category |
Urban |
χ2 (p) |
Rural |
χ2 (p) |
n (%) |
n (%) |
No |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
Individual factors
|
|
Gender |
male |
12,515 (33.3) |
25,074 (66.7) |
771.11 (<0.001) |
7,977 (36.4) |
13,949 (63.6) |
487.99 (<0.001) |
female |
19,273 (42.7) |
25,833 (57.3) |
11,224 (46.5) |
12,890 (53.5) |
|
Age (years) |
19–34 |
9,005 (36.9) |
15,380 (63.1) |
123.58 (<0.001) |
3,380 (46.2) |
3,929 (53.8) |
138.13 (<0.001) |
35–49 |
12,715 (40.9) |
18,403 (59.1) |
6,684 (43.3) |
8,745 (56.7) |
50–64 |
10,068 (37.0) |
17,124 (63.0) |
9,137 (39.2) |
14,165 (60.8) |
|
Martial status |
living with spouse |
2,204 (40.0) |
33,046 (60.0) |
250.50 (<0.001) |
14,533 (41.7) |
20,347 (58.3) |
0.45 (0.798) |
divorced, and bereaved |
2,977 (39.9) |
4,493 (60.1) |
2,020 (41.5) |
2,844 (58.5) |
single |
6,786 (33.7) |
13,340 (66.3) |
2,639 (42.1) |
3,632 (57.9) |
|
Education |
uneducated |
167 (40.6) |
244 (59.4) |
26.16 (<0.001) |
387 (43.1) |
510 (56.9) |
39.18 (<0.001) |
elementary school |
1,655 (38.6) |
2,635 (61.4) |
3,311 (39.8) |
5,003 (60.2) |
middle school |
2,744 (39.4) |
4,214 (60.6) |
2,843 (39.6) |
4,341 (60.4) |
high school |
10,750 (39.4) |
16,538 (60.6) |
7,088 (42.5) |
9,606 (57.5) |
≥College/University |
16,421 (37.6) |
27,208 (62.4) |
5,545 (43.0) |
7,348 (57.0) |
|
Job |
non-manual |
14,930 (38.2) |
24,182 (61.8) |
88.00 (<0.001) |
6,399 (44.9) |
78,655 (55.1) |
770.59 (<0.001) |
manual |
6,453 (36.1) |
11,426 (63.9) |
7,637 (35.3) |
13,979 (64.7) |
Housewife, unemployed |
10,378 (40.5) |
15,258 (59.5) |
5,158 (50.9) |
4,980 (49.1) |
|
Household monthly income (10,000 won) |
<100 |
1,460 (40.8) |
2,119 (59.2) |
27.03 (<0.001) |
2,324 (42.4) |
3,161 (57.6) |
5.23 (0.265) |
100–199 |
3,730 (38.7) |
5,897 (61.3) |
3,605 (41.2) |
5,146 (58.8) |
200–299 |
5,672 (39.7) |
8,601 (60.3) |
3,954 (41.0) |
5,688 (59.0) |
300–399 |
5,987 (38.3) |
9,663 (61.7) |
3,254 (42.3) |
4,440 (57.7) |
≥400 |
13,870 (37.7) |
22,893 (62.3) |
5,302 (41.3) |
7,539 (58.7) |
|
Self-rated health |
very good |
8,594 (35.5) |
15,584 (64.5) |
137.14 (<0.001) |
5,761 (40.0) |
8,641 (60.0) |
26.56 (<0.001) |
neither good nor |
13,748 (39.0) |
21,521 (61.0) |
6,881 (42.8) |
9,189 (57.2) |
poor |
9,445 (40.6) |
13,801 (59.4) |
6,559 (42.1) |
9,009 (57.9) |
|
No. of Chronic diseases |
0 |
24,095 (38.6) |
38,273 (61.4) |
20.57 (<0.001) |
12,991 (42.4) |
17,614 (57.6) |
34.68 (<0.001) |
1 |
4,775 (36.8) |
8,204 (63.2) |
3,627 (39.0) |
5,665 (61.0) |
≥2 |
2,893 (39.7) |
4,400 (60.3) |
2,553 (42.1) |
3,505 (57.9) |
|
BMI |
normal (BMI<25) |
24,154 (38.5) |
38,612 (61.5) |
2.74 (0.098) |
13,488 (41.8) |
18,783 (58.2) |
3.87 (0.049) |
obesity (BMI≥25) |
7,257 (37.8) |
11,932 (62.2) |
4,996 (40.8) |
7,259 (59.2) |
Table 3The relationship between community level factors and moderate or vigorous physical activity of adults in urban and rural areas.
Variables |
Urban |
t or χ2 (p) |
Rural |
t or χ2 (p) |
M±SD or n (%) |
M±SD or n (%) |
No |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
Satisfaction with safety |
0.70 ± 0.08 |
0.71 ± 0.08 |
2.00 (0.046) |
0.86 ± 0.06 |
0.87 ± 0.06 |
8.25 (<.001) |
|
Satisfaction with natural environment |
0.74 ± 0.10 |
0.73 ± 0.10 |
6.69 (<0.001) |
0.89 ± 0.06 |
0.90 ± 0.06 |
6.75 (<.001) |
|
Satisfaction with life environment |
0.78 ± 0.07 |
0.78 ± 0.07 |
3.02 (0.003) |
0.81 ± 0.07 |
0.81 ± 0.07 |
1.30 (0.19) |
|
Satisfaction with public transportation |
0.77 ± 0.10 |
0.79 ± 0.10 |
21.87 (<0.001) |
0.57 ± 0.11 |
0.58 ± 0.11 |
10.75 (<.001) |
|
Satisfaction with health service |
0.72 ± 0.11 |
0.74 ± 0.11 |
16.36 (<0.001) |
0.58 ± 0.11 |
0.59 ± 0.11 |
11.99 (<.001) |
|
Social cohesion |
0.29 ± 0.10 |
0.28 ± 0.10 |
7.56 (<0.001) |
0.75 ± 0.11 |
0.76 ± 0.11 |
11.75 (<.001) |
|
Social networks |
6.88 ± 0.77 |
6.86 ± 0.73 |
3.98 (<0.001) |
9.14 ± 0.88 |
9.24 ± 0.89 |
12.44 (<.001) |
|
Social activity participation |
0.74 ± 0.06 |
0.75 ± 0.05 |
7.68 (<0.001) |
0.69 ± 0.09 |
0.69 ± 0.09 |
6.35 (<.001) |
|
Presence of cycle paths (Yes) |
6,046 (38.9) |
9,508 (61.1) |
1.50 (0.220) |
1,595 (37.2) |
2,688 (62.8) |
38.72 (<.001) |
|
Number of exercise facilities |
85.36 ± 74.32 |
83.50 ± 70.99 |
3.61 (<0.001) |
27.38 ± 34.75 |
27.13 ± 32.81 |
0.76 (0.45) |
|
Number of sports parks |
2.25 ± 4.23 |
1.77 ± 3.28 |
18.36 (<0.001) |
2.46 ± 2.50 |
2.58 ± 2.78 |
4.81 (<.001) |
|
Number of hiking trails |
11.32 ± 15.08 |
10.09 ± 14.87 |
11.48 (<0.001) |
3.60 ± 4.25 |
4.04 ± 5.14 |
9.65 (<.001) |
|
Number of urban parks |
42.14 ± 52.43 |
42.20 ± 50.99 |
0.15 (0.878) |
3.00 ± 10.99 |
3.03 ± 10.53 |
0.34 (0.74) |
Table 4Effects of individual and community level factors upon moderate or vigorous physical activity: a multilevel analysis; urban.
|
Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
Fixed effect
|
|
Individual level
|
|
Gender |
Male (ref) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age(years) |
19–34 (ref) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Marital status |
Living with spouse (ref) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Education |
uneducated |
|
|
1.02 |
0.861–1.205 |
1.02 |
0.861–1.206 |
|
Job |
non-manual |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Household income |
<100 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Self-rated health |
poor |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No. of |
0 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
BMI |
obesity |
|
|
0.97 |
0.939–1.009 |
0.97 |
0.939–1.009 |
|
Community level
|
|
Satisfaction with safety |
|
|
|
|
1.36 |
0.256–5.941 |
|
Satisfaction with natural environment |
|
|
|
|
0.45 |
0.159–1.378 |
|
Satisfaction with life environment |
|
|
|
|
2.60 |
0.382–17.314 |
|
Satisfaction with public transportation |
|
|
|
|
2.83 |
1.001–7.223 |
|
Satisfaction with health service |
|
|
|
|
0.93 |
0.357–2.288 |
|
Social cohesion |
|
|
|
|
0.66 |
0.308–1.477 |
|
Social networks |
|
|
|
|
0.97 |
0.876–1.072 |
|
Social activity participation |
|
|
|
|
2.53 |
0.768–14.318 |
|
Presence of cycle paths (ref=no) |
|
|
|
|
0.99 |
0.815–1.148 |
|
Number of exercise facilities |
|
|
|
|
1.00 |
0.996–1.001 |
|
Number of sports parks |
|
|
|
|
0.98 |
0.960–0.995 |
|
Number of hiking trails |
|
|
|
|
0.99 |
0.989–0.999 |
|
Community level random effect
|
|
Between community variance(SE) |
0.14 (0.03) |
0.14 (0.03) |
0.09 (0.02) |
|
ICC |
0.040 |
0.040 |
0.028 |
|
Statistics for the model fit
|
|
Log likelihood |
−53990.09 |
−50962.91 |
−50943.40 |
|
Likelihood-ratio test
|
|
χ2 (p) |
2198.89 (<0.001) |
2074.46 (<0.001) |
1339.29 (<0.001) |
Table 5Effects of individual and community level factors upon moderate or vigorous physical activity: MVPA from a multilevel analysis; rural.
|
|
Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|
|
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
OR |
95% CI |
Fixed effect
|
|
Individual level
|
|
Gender |
Male(ref) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Age(years) |
19–34(ref) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Marital status |
Living with spouse(ref) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Education |
uneducated |
|
|
1.02 |
0.861–1.205 |
1.02 |
0.861–1.206 |
|
Job |
non-manual |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Household income |
<100 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Self-rated |
poor |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No. of Chronic diseases |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
BMI |
obesity |
|
|
0.99 |
0.941–1.031 |
0.99 |
0.941–1.031 |
|
Community level
|
|
Satisfaction with safety |
|
|
|
|
|
0.05 |
0.003–0.867 |
|
Satisfaction with natural environment |
|
|
|
|
|
4.40 |
0.741–26.156 |
|
Satisfaction with living environment |
|
|
|
|
|
0.28 |
0.061–1.253 |
|
Satisfaction with public transportation |
|
|
|
|
|
2.60 |
0.781–8.680 |
|
Satisfaction with health service |
|
|
|
|
|
1.73 |
0.592–5.039 |
|
Social cohesion |
|
|
|
|
|
4.69 |
1.216–18.114 |
|
Social networks |
|
|
|
|
|
1.02 |
0.913–1.158 |
|
Social activity participation |
|
|
|
|
|
0.52 |
0.203–1.303 |
|
Presence of bikecycle paths (ref=no) |
|
|
|
|
|
1.33 |
1.007–1.751 |
|
Number of exercise facilities |
|
|
|
|
|
2.00 |
0.994–1.001 |
|
Number of sports parks |
|
|
|
|
|
1.03 |
1.001–1.058 |
|
Number of hiking trails |
|
|
|
|
|
1.03 |
1.006–1.044 |
|
Number of urban parks |
|
|
|
|
|
1.01 |
0.993–1.016 |
|
Community level random effect
|
|
Between community variance(SE) |
|
0.17(0.03) |
0.16 (0.03) |
0.11 (0.03) |
|
Intra-class correlation(ICC) |
|
0.049 |
0.047 |
0.033 |
|
Statistics for the model fit
|
|
Log likelihood |
|
−30539.61 |
−27952.83 |
−27937.74 |
|
Likelihood-ratio test |
|
|
|
|
|
χ2(p) |
|
1472.76(<0.001) |
1261.70(<0.001) |
882.40 (<0.001) |