Figure 1
Antiviral activity of essential oils on influenza A/WS/33 virus.
Virus suspension and media containing essential oil (100 μg/mL) were added to the cells. After incubation 2 days, antiviral activity was investigated using the CPE reduction assay.
Results are presented as the mean percentage values obtained from 3 independent experiments carried out in triplicate ± SD.
Figure 2
The effect of essential oils on influenza B/Lee/40 virus-induced CPE. The virus-infected cells were treated with essential oils (100 μg/mL). After incubation 2 days, the cells was stained by SRB and the morphology was examined.
Non-infected cells; (B) virus-infected cells without oils; (C) non-infected cells with oseltamivir; (D) virus-infected cells with oseltamivir; (E) non-infected cells with marjoram oil; (F) virus-infected cells with marjoram oil; (G) non-infected cells with clary sage oil; (H) virus-infected cells with clary sage oil; (I) non-infected cells with anise oil; (J) virus-infected cells with anise oil.
CPE = cytopathic effect; SRB = sulforhodamine B.
Table 1List of 62 plant essential oils tested for antiviral activity.
Family |
Species |
Oil |
Part |
Alliaceae |
Allium sativum L. |
Garlic |
Root |
Annonaceae |
Cananga odorata Hook. f. et Thomson |
Ylang ylang |
Flower |
Apiaceae |
Pimpinella anisum L. |
Anise |
Fruit |
Apiaceae |
Carum carvi L. |
Caraway seed |
Seed |
Apiaceae |
Coriandrum sativum L. |
Coriander |
Flower |
Apiaceae |
Coriandrum sativum L. |
Coriander herb |
Leaf |
Apiaceae |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. |
Fennel |
Seed |
Asteraceae |
Artemesia vulgaris L. |
Armoise |
Whole plant |
Asteraceae |
Tagetes minuta L. |
Tagette |
Leaf |
Cupressaceae |
Juniperus irginiana L. |
Cedarwood |
Bark |
Cupressaceae |
Cupressus sempervirens L. |
Cypress |
Twig |
Cupressaceae |
Juniperus communis L. |
Juniperberry |
Berry |
Ericaceae |
Gaultheria procumbens L. |
Wintergreen |
Leaf |
Fabaceae |
Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae Royle |
Balsam peru |
Resin |
Lamiaceae |
Ocimum basilicum L. |
Basil |
Flower |
Lamiaceae |
Nepeta cataria L. |
Catnip |
Leaf & flower |
Lamiaceae |
Salvia sclarea L. |
Clary sage |
Flower |
Lamiaceae |
Hyssopus officinalis L. |
Hyssop |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Thymus mastichina L. |
Marjoram |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Origanum vulgare L. |
Oregano |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. |
Patchouly |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Mentha piperita L. |
Peppermint |
Flower |
Lamiaceae |
Mentha pulegium L. |
Pennyroyal |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. |
Rosemary |
Flower |
Lamiaceae |
Satureja hortensis L. |
Savory |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Mentha spicata L. |
Spearmint |
Flower |
Lamiaceae |
Thymus vulgaris L. |
Thyme |
Leaf |
Lamiaceae |
Thymus vulgaris L. |
Thyme white |
Leaf |
Lauraceae |
Cinnamomum cassia Bl. |
Cassia pure |
Bark |
Lauraceae |
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Garc. Ex Blume Nees |
Cinnamon bark |
Bark |
Lauraceae |
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume |
Cinnamon leaf |
Leaf |
Lauraceae |
Aniba roseadora var. amazonica Ducke |
Rosewood |
Wood |
Myrtaceae |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. |
Eucalyptus |
Leaf |
Myrtaceae |
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. |
Pimento berry |
Flower |
Myrtaceae |
Melaleuca alternifolia (Maid. & Bet.) Cheel |
Tea tree |
Leaf |
Oleaceae |
Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb. |
Clove bud |
Bud |
Oleaceae |
Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb. |
Clove leaf |
Leaf |
Pinaceae |
Pinus sylvestris L. |
Pine |
Needle |
Poaceae |
Cymbopogon nardus L. |
Citronella java |
Leaf |
Poaceae |
Pelargonium graveolens L. |
Geranium |
Flower |
Poaceae |
Cymbopogon martinii Stapf. |
Palmarosa |
Grass |
Rutaceae |
Citrus bergamia Risso |
Bergamot |
Peel |
Rutaceae |
Citrus paradisi Macfadyen |
Grapefruit |
Fruit |
Rutaceae |
Citrus sinensis (L .) Osbeck |
Orange |
Peel |
Rutaceae |
Citrus limonum L. |
Lemon |
Peel |
Rutaceae |
Citrus aurantifolia Swing. |
Lime |
Peel |
Rutaceae |
Citrus reticulata Blanco |
Mandarine |
Peel |
Rutaceae |
Citrus aurantium L. |
Neroli |
Flower |
Santalaceae |
Santalum album L. |
Sandalwood |
Wood |
Rosaceae |
Rosa damascene Mill. |
Rose |
Flower |
Asteraceae |
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert |
Chamomile blue |
Flower |
Asteraceae |
Artemisia dracunculus L. |
Estragon |
Leaf |
Poaceae |
Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. |
Lemongrass |
Whole plant |
Myrtaceae |
Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) J.W.Moore |
Bay |
Leaf |
Lauraceae |
Litsea cubeba L. |
Litsea cubeba |
Fruit |
Clusiaceae |
Calophyllum inophyllum L. |
Tamanu |
Fruit |
Rutaceae |
Zanthoxylum armatum |
Xanthoxylum |
Seed |
Myrtaceae |
Eucalyptus citriodora |
Eucalyptus (citriodora) |
Leaf |
Zingiberaceae |
Zingiber officinale Roscoe |
Ginger |
Rhizome |
Table 2Chemical composition of marjoram oil.
No. |
Compound |
Retention time (min) |
Relative composition ratio (%) |
1 |
α –pinene |
928 |
4.21 |
2 |
Sabinene |
962 |
1.82 |
3 |
β–pinene |
967 |
5.81 |
4 |
β–myrcene |
981 |
1.02 |
5 |
p-cymene |
1,010 |
0.94 |
6 |
1,8-cineole |
1,018 |
64.61 |
7 |
Linalool |
1,084 |
15.28 |
8 |
Terpinen-4-ol *
|
1,159 |
1.29 |
9 |
α–terpineol *
|
1,170 |
2.40 |
10 |
Bornylacetate *
|
1,435 |
2.61 |
Total |
|
|
100.0 |
Table 3Chemical composition of clary sage oil.
No. |
Compound |
Retention time (min) |
Relative composition ratio (%) |
1 |
β–myrcene |
981 |
1.53 |
2 |
Linalool |
1,084 |
22.06 |
3 |
α–Terpineol |
1,170 |
4.21 |
4 |
Cinnamaldehyde *
|
1,234 |
1.81 |
5 |
Linalayl acetate *
|
1,240 |
61.16 |
6 |
Geranyl acetate |
1,360 |
2.40 |
Total |
|
|
93.17 |
Table 4Chemical composition of anise oil.
No. |
Compound |
Retention time (min) |
Relative composition ratio (%) |
1 |
α –pinene |
928 |
0.85 |
2 |
Limonene |
1,019 |
2.55 |
3 |
Linalool |
1,084 |
2.74 |
4 |
Estragole |
1,173 |
8.21 |
5 |
4-Allylanisole *
|
1,211 |
1.21 |
6 |
trans-Anethole |
1,259 |
82.78 |
7 |
Charvicol *
|
1,650 |
1.08 |
Total |
|
|
99.41 |