Figure 1Study design.
Figure 2Distribution of daily water intake. (A) In men. (B) In women.
Table 1Health behaviors between Group Above AI and Group Below AI.
|
|
Group Above AI
|
Group Below AI
|
p
|
n
|
% |
n
|
% |
Sex |
Male |
315 |
42.8 |
1,912 |
39.7 |
0.107 |
Female |
421 |
57.2 |
2,907 |
60.3 |
|
|
736 |
100.0 |
4,819 |
100.0 |
Age (y) |
19–29 |
92 |
12.5 |
487 |
10.1 |
0.000 |
30–39 |
158 |
21.5 |
776 |
16.1 |
40–49 |
148 |
20.1 |
751 |
15.6 |
50–59 |
143 |
19.4 |
888 |
18.4 |
60–69 |
125 |
17.0 |
885 |
18.4 |
70–79 |
64 |
8.7 |
826 |
17.1 |
≥ 80 |
6 |
0.8 |
206 |
4.3 |
|
|
|
100.0 |
|
100.0 |
Smoking |
Currently smoking |
178 |
26.9 |
659 |
15.4 |
0.000 |
Previously smoking |
110 |
16.6 |
891 |
20.8 |
Nonsmoking |
373 |
56.4 |
2,734 |
63.8 |
|
|
|
100.0 |
|
100.0 |
Alcohol |
More than 2–3 times/wk |
161 |
24.4 |
738 |
17.2 |
0.000 |
1–4 times/mo |
208 |
31.5 |
1,280 |
29.9 |
Less than one time |
126 |
19.1 |
857 |
20.0 |
No drink for the latest 1 y |
166 |
25.1 |
1,409 |
32.9 |
|
|
|
100.0 |
|
100.0 |
Stress |
Feel stress under pressure |
28 |
4.2 |
166 |
3.9 |
0.015 |
Feel stress a lot |
160 |
24.2 |
855 |
20.0 |
Feel stress a little |
386 |
58.4 |
2,529 |
59.1 |
Hardly feel stress |
87 |
13.2 |
730 |
17.1 |
|
|
|
100.0 |
|
100.0 |
Dietary supplements |
Yes (2 wk/1 mo) |
363 |
49.3 |
1,991 |
41.3 |
0.000 |
No |
373 |
50.7 |
2,828 |
58.7 |
|
|
|
100.0 |
|
100.0 |
|
Mean (SD) |
Mean (SD) |
p
|
Body weight |
kg |
65.43 (12.48) |
61.27 (11.29) |
0.001 |
Sleeping hours |
h/d |
6.74 (1.36) |
6.78 (1.43) |
0.333 |
Severe physical activity |
min/wk |
117.13 (320.28) |
70.80 (244.08) |
0.000 |
Moderate physical activity |
min/wk |
139.84 (365.58) |
88.23 (273.62) |
0.000 |
Total calorie intake |
kcal/d |
2,088.92 (1,009.56) |
1,892.36 (796.69) |
0.000 |
Water intakes from food |
g/d |
1,132.98 (751.47) |
926.27 (594.15) |
0.000 |
Sodium intake |
mg/d |
5,287.78 (3,765.54) |
4,566.42 (3,251.83) |
0.000 |
Water intake |
cup/d (1 cup = 200 mL) |
9.97 (2.73) |
3.69 (1.71) |
0.034 |
Table 2Odds ratio of metabolic diseases and heart diseases associated with water intake.
Disease |
0 (Below AI) |
1 (Above AI)
|
p
|
OR |
(95% CI) |
Hypertension |
Model 1a
|
1.0 (ref.) |
0.85 |
(0.71–1.02) |
0.076 |
Model 2b
|
1.0 (ref.) |
1.25 |
(1.02–1.53) |
0.032 |
Model 3c
|
1.0 (ref.) |
1.22 |
(0.58–2.55) |
0.599 |
Diabetes mellitus |
Model 1 |
1.0 (ref.) |
1.13 |
(0.87–1.47) |
0.370 |
Model 2 |
1.0 (ref.) |
1.55 |
(1.17–2.05) |
0.002 |
Model 3 |
1.0 (ref.) |
1.38 |
(0.51–3.73) |
0.384 |
Dyslipidemia |
Model 1 |
1.0 (ref.) |
1.02 |
(0.84–1.23) |
0.866 |
Model 2 |
1.0 (ref.) |
1.19 |
(0.98–1.45) |
0.082 |
Model 3 |
1.0 (ref.) |
0.94 |
(0.47–1.86) |
0.853 |
Myocardial infarction |
Model 1 |
1.0 (ref.) |
0.60 |
(0.22–1.69) |
0.603 |
Model 2 |
1.0 (ref.) |
0.84 |
(0.30–2.37) |
0.737 |
Model 3 |
1.0 (ref.) |
5.36 |
(0.67–43.20) |
0.115 |
Angina pectoris |
Model 1 |
1.0 (ref.) |
0.68 |
(0.34–1.35) |
0.268 |
Model 2 |
1.0 (ref.) |
1.02 |
(0.51–2.07) |
0.952 |
Model 3 |
1.0 (ref.) |
2.25 |
(0.88–57.84) |
0.624 |