Table 1Socio-demographic characteristics.
Demographic characteristics |
Frequency (n) |
Percentage (%) |
Residence (n = 202) |
Rural |
157 |
77.7 |
Urban |
45 |
22.3 |
Religious (n = 202) |
Hindu |
193 |
95.5 |
Buddhist |
6 |
3 |
Muslim |
3 |
1.5 |
Age of the respondents (n = 202) |
15–20 y |
33 |
16.3 |
20–25 y |
104 |
51.5 |
25–30 y |
53 |
26.2 |
30–35 y |
10 |
5.0 |
>35 y |
2 |
1.0 |
Mean age: 22.96 ± 3.723 y; max age: 37 y; min age: 15 y |
Age of marriage (n = 202) |
≤ 20 y |
121 |
59.9 |
> 20 y |
81 |
40.1 |
Mean age: 19.35 ± 2.356 y; max age: 27 y; min age: 13 y |
Type of marriage (n = 202) |
Arranged marriage |
142 |
70.3 |
Love marriage |
60 |
29.7 |
Marital status (n = 202) |
Married |
200 |
99 |
Widowed |
2 |
1 |
Occupation of pregnant women (n = 202) |
Housewife |
94 |
46.5 |
Unemployed |
61 |
30.1 |
Services |
15 |
7.4 |
Student |
14 |
6.9 |
Agriculture |
11 |
5.4 |
Business |
7 |
3.5 |
Monthly income of respondents (NRP) |
< 10,000 |
12 |
54.5 |
10,000–20,000 |
9 |
40.9 |
> 40,000 |
1 |
4.5 |
Education level of pregnant women |
Illiterate |
1 |
0.5 |
Primary |
19 |
9.5 |
Secondary |
116 |
57.7 |
Higher secondary |
48 |
23.9 |
Bachelor's degree and above |
17 |
8.5 |
Pregnancy (weeks) |
12–18 |
25 |
12.4 |
18–24 |
19 |
9.4 |
24–30 |
68 |
33.7 |
30–36 |
58 |
28.7 |
> 36 |
32 |
15.8 |
Mean: 27.49 ± 6.889 wk; max: 40 wk; min: 12 wk |
Pregnancy desire persons |
Only husband |
1 |
0.5 |
Both of you |
197 |
98 |
Family |
4 |
2 |
Table 2Types of gender-based violence experienced by pregnant women.
GBV |
Frequency (n) |
Percentage (%) |
Experience of GBV (n = 202) |
Yes |
184 |
91.1 |
No |
18 |
8.9 |
Faced of GBV |
Only 1 |
73 |
39.7 |
2 |
68 |
37.0 |
3 |
37 |
20.1 |
4 |
6 |
3.3 |
Types of GBV (n = 184) |
|
|
Control (economic violence) |
160 |
87.0* |
Psychological violence |
99 |
53.8* |
Sexual violence |
77 |
41.8* |
Physical violence |
8 |
4.3* |
Table 3Experience of different types of GBV among pregnant women.
Types of GBV |
Frequency (n) |
*Percentage (%) |
Psychological violence (n = 99) |
Ever frightened by angry looks |
67 |
74.4 |
Jealousy or anger due to talking with other men |
51 |
56.7 |
Insulted with abusive language |
42 |
46.7 |
Not being involved in decision making |
14 |
15.6 |
Ever neglected |
14 |
15.6 |
Threatened to send parents' house |
1 |
1.1 |
Ever sent to parents' house |
1 |
1.1 |
Economic violence (control) (n = 160) |
Created financial hardships |
145 |
91.2 |
Denied basic personal needs |
111 |
69.8 |
Insisted on knowing where respondents were |
29 |
18.2 |
Restricted to parents' home or friends/relatives' houses (jealousy) |
24 |
15.1 |
Physical violence (n = 8) |
Slapped her |
7 |
87.5 |
Pushed, shaken or threw something at her |
6 |
75.0 |
Twisted arm or pulled her hair |
3 |
37.5 |
Punched with fist or with something |
3 |
37.5 |
Kicked, dragged or beat her up |
1 |
12.5 |
Sexual violence (n = 77) |
Physically forced her to have sexual intercourse with him even when she did not want to |
77 |
100 |
Hurt or caused injury on respondent's private parts |
2 |
2.6 |
Table 4Percentage distribution of perpetrator involved in gender-based violence to pregnant women (n = 137).
Perpetrator |
Frequency (n) |
*Percentage |
Husband |
122 |
100.0 |
Mother-in-law |
13 |
10.7 |
Father-in-law |
1 |
0.8 |
Sister/brother |
1 |
0.8 |
Table 5Percentage distribution of the respondents by the frequency of spousal violence.
Frequency of violated behavior |
Frequency (n) |
Percentage (%) |
Rarely |
104 |
51.5 |
2–3 times a week |
10 |
5.0 |
Almost everyday |
6 |
3.0 |
4–6 times a week |
2 |
1.0 |