Figure 1Relationships between emotional reactions and depressive symptoms at the high and low levels of problem-focused coping. The moderating effects of (A) confrontation (high, B = 0.24; low, B = 0.38) and (B) seeking social support (high, B = 0.27; low, B = 0.36) on the relationship between emotional reaction and depressive symptoms. The low and high problem-focused coping effects are depicted artificially with standard scores 1 standard deviation below (SD − 1) and above (SD + 1) the mean, respectively.
Figure 2The relationships between emotional reactions and depressive symptoms at the high and low levels of emotion-focused coping. The moderating effects of (A) passive acceptance (high, B = 0.38; low, B = 0.29) and (B) emotional discharge (high, B = 0.35; low, B = 0.19) on the relationship between emotional reaction and depressive symptoms. The low and high emotion-focused coping effects are depicted artificially with standard scores 1 standard deviation below (SD − 1) and above (SD + 1) the mean, respectively.
Table 1Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, emotional reactions, and coping responses according to ageism experience, 2013 (n = 812).
|
|
Ageism
|
No ageism
|
p
|
n = 390 (48.1) |
n = 422 (51.9) |
Sex |
Male |
193 (48.5) |
205 (51.5) |
0.796 |
|
Female |
197 (47.6) |
217 (51.4) |
|
Survey site |
Urban |
264 (55.0) |
216 (45.0) |
<0.0001 |
|
Rural |
126 (38.0) |
206 (62.0) |
|
Marital status |
Married |
199 (45.5) |
238 (54.5) |
0.125 |
|
Not married |
191 (50.9) |
184 (49.1) |
|
Formal education |
High school or more |
156 (50.2) |
155 (49.8) |
0.333 |
|
Middle school (7–9 y) |
99 (47.4) |
110 (52.6) |
|
|
Elementary school or none |
135 (46.2) |
157 (53.7) |
|
Chronic disease |
Yes |
280 (71.8) |
283 (67.1) |
0.144 |
|
No |
110 (28.2) |
139 (32.9) |
|
Continuous measures |
Mean (SD) |
Mean (SD) |
|
Age (y) |
|
72.6 (6.2) |
73.1(6.6) |
0.314 |
Economic status |
|
3.76 (1.67) |
3.85 (1.75) |
0.396 |
Chronic health |
|
1.27 (1.14) |
1.12 (1.10) |
0.052 |
Depression |
|
8.81 (9.09) |
6.52 (8.18) |
0.033 |
Ageism |
|
5.06 (4.40) |
|
|
Emotional reactions |
7.57 (8.57) |
|
|
Coping responses |
Problem-focused coping |
Taking formal action |
0.30 (0.92) |
|
|
|
Confrontation |
1.75 (2.14) |
|
|
|
Seeking social support |
1.71 (1.90) |
|
|
Emotion-focused coping |
Passive acceptance |
5.32 (4.87) |
|
|
|
Emotional discharge |
0.31 (0.88) |
|
|
Table 2A hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting depressive symptoms from ageism and emotional reactions.
Variables |
B
|
SEb
|
β
|
p
|
F |
aR2
|
ΔR2
|
ΔF |
Step 1 |
Age |
−0.11 |
0.05 |
−0.08 |
* |
17.35 |
0.15 |
0.02 |
13.53‡
|
Survey site (ref = urban) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rural |
−2.55 |
0.61 |
−0.14 |
‡
|
|
|
|
|
Sex (ref = male) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Female |
1.32 |
0.64 |
0.08 |
* |
|
|
|
|
Marital status (ref = married) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Not married |
0.36 |
0.67 |
0.02 |
|
|
|
|
|
Education (ref = high school or more) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Middle school (7–9 y) |
0.24 |
0.67 |
0.02 |
|
|
|
|
|
Elementary school or none |
4.15 |
1.00 |
0.16 |
‡
|
|
|
|
|
Economic status |
−0.52 |
0.18 |
−0.10 |
†
|
|
|
|
|
Chronic disease |
1.60 |
0.26 |
0.21 |
‡
|
|
|
|
|
Ageism |
0.27 |
0.07 |
0.12 |
‡
|
|
|
|
|
Step 2 |
Ageism |
−0.02 |
0.09 |
−0.01 |
|
20.24 |
0.19 |
0.04 |
38.85‡
|
Emotional reactions |
0.34 |
0.05 |
0.24 |
‡
|
|
|
|
|
Table 3A hierarchical multiple regression analysis prediction depressive symptoms from ageism, emotional reactions (ER), and problem-focused and emotional-focused coping, and their interactions.
|
Problem-focused coping||
|
Emotion-focused coping||
|
Taking formal action (Model 1)
|
Confrontation (Model 2)
|
Seeking social support (Model 3)
|
Passive acceptance (Model 4)
|
Emotional discharge (Model 5)
|
B
|
SEb
|
β
|
p
|
B
|
SEb
|
β
|
p
|
B
|
SEb
|
β
|
p
|
B
|
SEb
|
β
|
p
|
B
|
SEb
|
β
|
p
|
Step 3 |
Ageism |
−0.02 |
0.09 |
−0.01 |
|
0.01 |
0.09 |
−0.01 |
|
−0.01 |
0.09 |
−0.01 |
|
−0.03 |
0.09 |
−0.01 |
|
−0.05 |
0.10 |
−0.02 |
|
ERa
|
0.34 |
0.06 |
0.25 |
§
|
0.36 |
0.06 |
0.26 |
§
|
0.36 |
0.06 |
0.26 |
§
|
0.34 |
0.05 |
0.24 |
§
|
0.34 |
0.05 |
0.24 |
§
|
Coping |
−0.40 |
0.45 |
−0.03 |
|
−0.34 |
0.20 |
−0.06 |
|
−0.44 |
0.22 |
−0.07 |
†
|
0.02 |
0.09 |
0.01 |
|
0.05 |
0.08 |
0.03 |
|
F |
18.46 |
|
|
|
18.60 |
|
|
|
18.81 |
|
|
|
18.38 |
|
|
|
18.43 |
|
|
|
aR2
|
0.19 |
|
|
|
0.19 |
|
|
|
0.20 |
|
|
|
0.19 |
|
|
|
0.19 |
|
|
|
ΔR2
|
0.00 |
|
|
|
0.00 |
|
|
|
0.01 |
|
|
|
0.00 |
|
|
|
0.00 |
|
|
|
ΔF |
1.04 |
|
|
|
0.23 |
|
|
|
3.83†
|
|
|
|
0.05 |
|
|
|
0.46 |
|
|
|
Step 4 |
Ageism†Coping |
0.03 |
0.09 |
0.04 |
|
0.03 |
0.05 |
0.057 |
|
0.03 |
0.06 |
0.05 |
|
−0.01 |
0.02 |
−0.03 |
|
−0.01 |
0.02 |
−0.02 |
|
ER†Coping |
0.04 |
0.05 |
0.05 |
|
−0.04 |
0.02 |
−0.10 |
∗
|
−0.05 |
0.03 |
−0.09 |
∗
|
0.02 |
0.01 |
0.09 |
†
|
0.02 |
0.01 |
0.15 |
†
|
F |
9.01 |
|
|
|
9.21 |
|
|
|
9.48 |
|
|
|
9.07 |
|
|
|
9.23 |
|
|
|
aR2
|
0.21 |
|
|
|
0.22 |
|
|
|
0.22 |
|
|
|
0.21 |
|
|
|
0.22 |
|
|
|
ΔR2
|
0.02 |
|
|
|
0.02 |
|
|
|
0.03 |
|
|
|
0.02 |
|
|
|
0.03 |
|
|
|
ΔF |
0.62 |
|
|
|
3.08 |
|
|
|
2.95∗
|
|
|
|
2.36 |
|
|
|
3.63 |
†
|
|
|