aDivision of Metabolic Diseases, Korea National Institute of Health, Osong, Korea
bDepartment of Family Medicine, Obesity Research Institute, Seoul-Paik Hospital, Inje University, Seoul, Korea
© 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Variable | n | 25(OH)D∗ | p |
---|---|---|---|
Overall† | 320 | 19.4 ± 4.6 | |
Deficiency | 204 | 16.7 ± 2.3 | <0.0001 |
Sufficiency | 116 | 24.0 ± 3.8 | |
BMI category‡ | |||
Not overweight | 283 | 19.4 ± 4.8 | 0.6268 |
Overweight | 37 | 18.8 ± 3.0 | |
Physical activity§ | |||
Low | 215 | 19.2 ± 4.8 | 0.3068 |
High | 68 | 19.6 ± 4.0 | |
Nutrient supplement user | |||
Yes | 133 | 19.0 ± 4.4 | 0.1046 |
No | 187 | 19.9 ± 4.8 | |
Vitamin D intake|| | |||
<AI | 242 | 19.1 ± 4.5 | 0.3706 |
≥AI | 37 | 19.6 ± 3.8 |
Values are expressed as mean ± SD. 25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D; AI = adequate intake; BMI = body mass index; SD = standard deviation.
Variable | n |
Simple linear regression∗ |
Multiple stepwise regression† |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | r2 | p | β | r2 | p | ||
Milk‡ | 310 | 0.0238 | 0.0272 | 0.0036 | 0.0233 | 0.0238 | 0.0009 |
Soft drinks‡ | 310 | −0.0397 | 0.0153 | 0.0299 | −0.0445 | 0.0481 | |
Fruit‡ | 308 | −0.0184 | 0.0122 | 0.0528 | −0.0224 | 0.0667 | |
Vegetables‡ | 311 | −0.0042 | 0.0007 | 0.6320 | |||
Korean noodles‡ | 311 | −0.0143 | 0.0015 | 0.4914 | |||
Fast food‡ | 309 | −0.0103 | 0.0007 | 0.6381 | |||
Skip breakfast§ | 301 | −0.0013 | 0.0001 | 0.8578 | |||
BMI-z score§ | 320 | −0.0178 | 0.0049 | 0.2118 | |||
Physical activity§ | 310 | 0.0329 | 0.0037 | 0.3068 | |||
Dietary vitamin D intake | 279 | 0.0061 | 0.0072 | 0.1579 |
†For multiple stepwise regression analysis, only the three independent variables incorporated into the model are listed, and the r2 values displayed are cumulative.
Unadjusted |
Adjusted∗ |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|
r | p | r | p | |
Fasting glucose† | −0.1833 | 0.0010 | −0.1748 | 0.0033 |
Fasting insulin† | −0.1617 | 0.0037 | −0.1237 | 0.0382 |
HOMA-IR† | −0.1819 | 0.0011 | −0.1441 | 0.0154 |
QUICKI† | 0.1733 | 0.0019 | 0.1369 | 0.0217 |
SBP | −0.0910 | 0.1044 | −0.0547 | 0.3612 |
DBP | −0.0534 | 0.3415 | −0.0138 | 0.8181 |
TG† | −0.1032 | 0.0653 | −0.0896 | 0.1341 |
TC† | 0.0319 | 0.5703 | 0.0199 | 0.7399 |
HDL-C† | 0.1514 | 0.0066 | 0.1140 | 0.0563 |
All (n = 320) |
Deficiency |
Sufficiency |
p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
<20 ng/mL (n = 204) | ≥20 ng/mL (n = 116) | |||
BMI (kg/m2) | 19.6 ± 2.7 | 19.8 ± 2.7 | 19.3 ± 2.6 | 0.1755 |
BMI-z | 0.05 ± 0.91 | 0.10 ± 0.88 | −0.41 ± 0.95 | 0.1686 |
WC (cm) | 70.3 ± 7.1 | 70.8 ± 7.0 | 69.4 ± 7.2 | 0.0901 |
SBP (mmHg) | 107.1 ± 9.5 | 108.0 ± 9.3 | 105.5 ± 9.7 | 0.0199 |
DBP (mmHg) | 69.5 ± 8.4 | 70.0 ± 8.2 | 68.8 ± 8.7 | 0.2109 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 88.5 ± 7.5 | 89.0 ± 7.7 | 87.5 ± 6.9 | 0.1088∗ |
Fasting insulin (μIU/mL) | 10.5 ± 4.7 | 11.0 ± 5.0 | 9.7 ± 4.0 | 0.0358∗ |
HOMA-IR | 2.32 ± 1.10 | 2.44 ± 1.17 | 2.11 ± 0.93 | 0.0325∗ |
QUICKI | 0.149 ± 0.01 | 0.148 ± 0.01 | 0.151 ± 0.127 | 0.0454∗ |
TG (mg/dL) | 76.5 ± 35.3 | 77.5 ± 36.6 | 74.7 ± 32.8 | 0.5532∗ |
TC (mg/dL) | 166.4 ± 27.2 | 165.5 ± 29.1 | 168.0 ± 23.6 | 0.2681∗ |
HDL-C (mg/dL) | 59.0 ± 10.4 | 58.4 ± 10.4 | 60.1 ± 10.3 | 0.1373∗ |
Metabolic risk score‡ | 0.00 ± 2.44 | 0.23 ± 2.51 | −0.41 ± 2.28 | 0.0241 |
Dietary intake (n = 279) | ||||
Energy (kcal) | 1675.8 ± 301.7 | 1696.4 ± 298.9 | 1635.3 ± 304.8 | 0.1098 |
Vitamin D (μg) | 3.0 ± 3.1 | 3.0 ± 2.5 | 3.2 ± 4.0 | 0.5914 |
AI of vitamin D (%) | 37 (13.26) | 24 (12.97) | 13 (13.83) | 0.8419† |
Ca (mg) | 466.4 ± 178.7 | 468.4 ± 180.9 | 462.3 ± 175.0 | 0.7884 |
Values are expressed as the mean ± SD or n (%). 25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D; AI = adequate intake; BMI = body mass index; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; HDL-C = high-density lipoprotein–cholesterol; HOMA-IR = homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance; QUICKI = quantitative insulin sensitivity check index; SBP = systolic blood pressure; SD = standard deviation; TC = total cholesterol; TG = triglyceride; WC = waist circumference.
n (all) |
Deficiency |
Sufficiency |
p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 204 (%) | n = 116 (%) | |||
Abdominal obesity (WC ≥ P90∗) | 52 | 38 (18.5) | 14 (12.1) | 0.1308 |
High BP (≥130/85 mmHg) | 18 | 12 (5.9) | 6 (5.2) | 0.7988 |
High glucose (≥100 mg/dL) | 25 | 21 (10.2) | 4 (3.5) | 0.0306 |
High TG (≥150 mg/dL) | 14 | 10 (4.9) | 4 (3.5) | 0.7771 |
Low HDL-C (<40 mg/dL) | 6 | 6 (2.9) | 0 (0.0) | – |
Variable | n | 25(OH)D | p |
---|---|---|---|
Overall | 320 | 19.4 ± 4.6 | |
Deficiency | 204 | 16.7 ± 2.3 | <0.0001 |
Sufficiency | 116 | 24.0 ± 3.8 | |
BMI category | |||
Not overweight | 283 | 19.4 ± 4.8 | 0.6268 |
Overweight | 37 | 18.8 ± 3.0 | |
Physical activity | |||
Low | 215 | 19.2 ± 4.8 | 0.3068 |
High | 68 | 19.6 ± 4.0 | |
Nutrient supplement user | |||
Yes | 133 | 19.0 ± 4.4 | 0.1046 |
No | 187 | 19.9 ± 4.8 | |
Vitamin D intake | |||
<AI | 242 | 19.1 ± 4.5 | 0.3706 |
≥AI | 37 | 19.6 ± 3.8 |
Variable | n | Simple linear regression | Multiple stepwise regression | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | r2 | p | β | r2 | p | ||
Milk | 310 | 0.0238 | 0.0272 | 0.0036 | 0.0233 | 0.0238 | 0.0009 |
Soft drinks | 310 | −0.0397 | 0.0153 | 0.0299 | −0.0445 | 0.0481 | |
Fruit | 308 | −0.0184 | 0.0122 | 0.0528 | −0.0224 | 0.0667 | |
Vegetables | 311 | −0.0042 | 0.0007 | 0.6320 | |||
Korean noodles | 311 | −0.0143 | 0.0015 | 0.4914 | |||
Fast food | 309 | −0.0103 | 0.0007 | 0.6381 | |||
Skip breakfast | 301 | −0.0013 | 0.0001 | 0.8578 | |||
BMI-z score | 320 | −0.0178 | 0.0049 | 0.2118 | |||
Physical activity | 310 | 0.0329 | 0.0037 | 0.3068 | |||
Dietary vitamin D intake | 279 | 0.0061 | 0.0072 | 0.1579 |
Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
r | p | r | p | |
Fasting glucose | −0.1833 | 0.0010 | −0.1748 | 0.0033 |
Fasting insulin | −0.1617 | 0.0037 | −0.1237 | 0.0382 |
HOMA-IR | −0.1819 | 0.0011 | −0.1441 | 0.0154 |
QUICKI | 0.1733 | 0.0019 | 0.1369 | 0.0217 |
SBP | −0.0910 | 0.1044 | −0.0547 | 0.3612 |
DBP | −0.0534 | 0.3415 | −0.0138 | 0.8181 |
TG | −0.1032 | 0.0653 | −0.0896 | 0.1341 |
TC | 0.0319 | 0.5703 | 0.0199 | 0.7399 |
HDL-C | 0.1514 | 0.0066 | 0.1140 | 0.0563 |
All (n = 320) | Deficiency | Sufficiency | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
<20 ng/mL (n = 204) | ≥20 ng/mL (n = 116) | |||
BMI (kg/m2) | 19.6 ± 2.7 | 19.8 ± 2.7 | 19.3 ± 2.6 | 0.1755 |
BMI-z | 0.05 ± 0.91 | 0.10 ± 0.88 | −0.41 ± 0.95 | 0.1686 |
WC (cm) | 70.3 ± 7.1 | 70.8 ± 7.0 | 69.4 ± 7.2 | 0.0901 |
SBP (mmHg) | 107.1 ± 9.5 | 108.0 ± 9.3 | 105.5 ± 9.7 | 0.0199 |
DBP (mmHg) | 69.5 ± 8.4 | 70.0 ± 8.2 | 68.8 ± 8.7 | 0.2109 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 88.5 ± 7.5 | 89.0 ± 7.7 | 87.5 ± 6.9 | 0.1088 |
Fasting insulin (μIU/mL) | 10.5 ± 4.7 | 11.0 ± 5.0 | 9.7 ± 4.0 | 0.0358 |
HOMA-IR | 2.32 ± 1.10 | 2.44 ± 1.17 | 2.11 ± 0.93 | 0.0325 |
QUICKI | 0.149 ± 0.01 | 0.148 ± 0.01 | 0.151 ± 0.127 | 0.0454 |
TG (mg/dL) | 76.5 ± 35.3 | 77.5 ± 36.6 | 74.7 ± 32.8 | 0.5532 |
TC (mg/dL) | 166.4 ± 27.2 | 165.5 ± 29.1 | 168.0 ± 23.6 | 0.2681 |
HDL-C (mg/dL) | 59.0 ± 10.4 | 58.4 ± 10.4 | 60.1 ± 10.3 | 0.1373 |
Metabolic risk score | 0.00 ± 2.44 | 0.23 ± 2.51 | −0.41 ± 2.28 | 0.0241 |
Dietary intake (n = 279) | ||||
Energy (kcal) | 1675.8 ± 301.7 | 1696.4 ± 298.9 | 1635.3 ± 304.8 | 0.1098 |
Vitamin D (μg) | 3.0 ± 3.1 | 3.0 ± 2.5 | 3.2 ± 4.0 | 0.5914 |
AI of vitamin D (%) | 37 (13.26) | 24 (12.97) | 13 (13.83) | 0.8419 |
Ca (mg) | 466.4 ± 178.7 | 468.4 ± 180.9 | 462.3 ± 175.0 | 0.7884 |
n (all) | Deficiency | Sufficiency | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 204 (%) | n = 116 (%) | |||
Abdominal obesity (WC ≥ P90 | 52 | 38 (18.5) | 14 (12.1) | 0.1308 |
High BP (≥130/85 mmHg) | 18 | 12 (5.9) | 6 (5.2) | 0.7988 |
High glucose (≥100 mg/dL) | 25 | 21 (10.2) | 4 (3.5) | 0.0306 |
High TG (≥150 mg/dL) | 14 | 10 (4.9) | 4 (3.5) | 0.7771 |
Low HDL-C (<40 mg/dL) | 6 | 6 (2.9) | 0 (0.0) | – |
Values are expressed as mean ± SD. 25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D; AI = adequate intake; BMI = body mass index; SD = standard deviation. Log transformations. 25(OH)D concentrations: deficiency, 25(OH)D < 20 ng/mL; sufficiency, 25(OH)D ≥ 20 ng/mL. Overweight: BMI ≥ 85th percentile (according to the 2007 Korea Centers for Disease Control BMI-for-age growth chart). Physical activity: low, ≤4 times/week; high, >4 times/week. Vitamin D AI criteria: 5 μg/day (according to the 2010 dietary reference intake for Koreans, Korean Nutrition Society).
25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Simple linear regressions are for the individual independent variables indicated. For multiple stepwise regression analysis, only the three independent variables incorporated into the model are listed, and the Milk, soft drinks, fruit, vegetables, Korean noodles, and fast food, frequency of intake for a week. Skip breakfast, skipped breakfast days for a week; physical activity, <4 times per week/>4 times per week.
25(OH)D = 25-hydroxyvitamin D; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; HDL-C = high-density lipoprotein–cholesterol; HOMA-IR = homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance; QUICKI = quantitative insulin sensitivity check index; SBP = systolic blood pressure; TC = total cholesterol; TG = triglyceride. Adjusted for physical activity and BMI-z score. Log transformation.
Values are expressed as the mean ± SD or Metabolic risk score (z-score) was calculated as the sum of the five z-scores (BMI, SBP, TG, HDL-C, and HOMA-IR).
WC ≥ 90th percentile (reference to the 2007 KCDC WC-for-age).