Table 1Serum 25(OH)D levels in girls according to body weight and lifestyle factors
Variable |
n
|
25(OH)D∗
|
p
|
Overall†
|
320 |
19.4 ± 4.6 |
|
Deficiency |
204 |
16.7 ± 2.3 |
<0.0001 |
Sufficiency |
116 |
24.0 ± 3.8 |
|
BMI category‡
|
Not overweight |
283 |
19.4 ± 4.8 |
0.6268 |
Overweight |
37 |
18.8 ± 3.0 |
|
Physical activity§
|
Low |
215 |
19.2 ± 4.8 |
0.3068 |
High |
68 |
19.6 ± 4.0 |
|
Nutrient supplement user |
Yes |
133 |
19.0 ± 4.4 |
0.1046 |
No |
187 |
19.9 ± 4.8 |
|
Vitamin D intake||
|
<AI |
242 |
19.1 ± 4.5 |
0.3706 |
≥AI |
37 |
19.6 ± 3.8 |
|
Table 2Variables predicting serum 25(OH)D
Variable |
n
|
Simple linear regression∗
|
Multiple stepwise regression†
|
β |
r2
|
p
|
β |
r2
|
p
|
Milk‡
|
310 |
0.0238 |
0.0272 |
0.0036 |
0.0233 |
0.0238 |
0.0009 |
Soft drinks‡
|
310 |
−0.0397 |
0.0153 |
0.0299 |
−0.0445 |
0.0481 |
|
Fruit‡
|
308 |
−0.0184 |
0.0122 |
0.0528 |
−0.0224 |
0.0667 |
|
Vegetables‡
|
311 |
−0.0042 |
0.0007 |
0.6320 |
|
|
|
Korean noodles‡
|
311 |
−0.0143 |
0.0015 |
0.4914 |
|
|
|
Fast food‡
|
309 |
−0.0103 |
0.0007 |
0.6381 |
|
|
|
Skip breakfast§
|
301 |
−0.0013 |
0.0001 |
0.8578 |
|
|
|
BMI-z score§
|
320 |
−0.0178 |
0.0049 |
0.2118 |
|
|
|
Physical activity§
|
310 |
0.0329 |
0.0037 |
0.3068 |
|
|
|
Dietary vitamin D intake |
279 |
0.0061 |
0.0072 |
0.1579 |
|
|
|
Table 3Relationship between serum 25(OH)D and metabolic risk factors
|
Unadjusted
|
Adjusted∗
|
r
|
p
|
r
|
p
|
Fasting glucose†
|
−0.1833 |
0.0010 |
−0.1748 |
0.0033 |
Fasting insulin†
|
−0.1617 |
0.0037 |
−0.1237 |
0.0382 |
HOMA-IR†
|
−0.1819 |
0.0011 |
−0.1441 |
0.0154 |
QUICKI†
|
0.1733 |
0.0019 |
0.1369 |
0.0217 |
SBP |
−0.0910 |
0.1044 |
−0.0547 |
0.3612 |
DBP |
−0.0534 |
0.3415 |
−0.0138 |
0.8181 |
TG†
|
−0.1032 |
0.0653 |
−0.0896 |
0.1341 |
TC†
|
0.0319 |
0.5703 |
0.0199 |
0.7399 |
HDL-C†
|
0.1514 |
0.0066 |
0.1140 |
0.0563 |
Table 4Characteristics of participants by serum 25(OH)D concentrations
|
All (n = 320) |
Deficiency
|
Sufficiency
|
p
|
<20 ng/mL (n = 204) |
≥20 ng/mL (n = 116) |
BMI (kg/m2) |
19.6 ± 2.7 |
19.8 ± 2.7 |
19.3 ± 2.6 |
0.1755 |
BMI-z |
0.05 ± 0.91 |
0.10 ± 0.88 |
−0.41 ± 0.95 |
0.1686 |
WC (cm) |
70.3 ± 7.1 |
70.8 ± 7.0 |
69.4 ± 7.2 |
0.0901 |
SBP (mmHg) |
107.1 ± 9.5 |
108.0 ± 9.3 |
105.5 ± 9.7 |
0.0199 |
DBP (mmHg) |
69.5 ± 8.4 |
70.0 ± 8.2 |
68.8 ± 8.7 |
0.2109 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) |
88.5 ± 7.5 |
89.0 ± 7.7 |
87.5 ± 6.9 |
0.1088∗
|
Fasting insulin (μIU/mL) |
10.5 ± 4.7 |
11.0 ± 5.0 |
9.7 ± 4.0 |
0.0358∗
|
HOMA-IR |
2.32 ± 1.10 |
2.44 ± 1.17 |
2.11 ± 0.93 |
0.0325∗
|
QUICKI |
0.149 ± 0.01 |
0.148 ± 0.01 |
0.151 ± 0.127 |
0.0454∗
|
TG (mg/dL) |
76.5 ± 35.3 |
77.5 ± 36.6 |
74.7 ± 32.8 |
0.5532∗
|
TC (mg/dL) |
166.4 ± 27.2 |
165.5 ± 29.1 |
168.0 ± 23.6 |
0.2681∗
|
HDL-C (mg/dL) |
59.0 ± 10.4 |
58.4 ± 10.4 |
60.1 ± 10.3 |
0.1373∗
|
Metabolic risk score‡
|
0.00 ± 2.44 |
0.23 ± 2.51 |
−0.41 ± 2.28 |
0.0241 |
Dietary intake (n = 279) |
Energy (kcal) |
1675.8 ± 301.7 |
1696.4 ± 298.9 |
1635.3 ± 304.8 |
0.1098 |
Vitamin D (μg) |
3.0 ± 3.1 |
3.0 ± 2.5 |
3.2 ± 4.0 |
0.5914 |
AI of vitamin D (%) |
37 (13.26) |
24 (12.97) |
13 (13.83) |
0.8419†
|
Ca (mg) |
466.4 ± 178.7 |
468.4 ± 180.9 |
462.3 ± 175.0 |
0.7884 |
Table 5Prevalence of individual metabolic abnormalities among girls by vitamin D status
|
n (all) |
Deficiency
|
Sufficiency
|
p
|
n = 204 (%) |
n = 116 (%) |
Abdominal obesity (WC ≥ P90∗) |
52 |
38 (18.5) |
14 (12.1) |
0.1308 |
High BP (≥130/85 mmHg) |
18 |
12 (5.9) |
6 (5.2) |
0.7988 |
High glucose (≥100 mg/dL) |
25 |
21 (10.2) |
4 (3.5) |
0.0306 |
High TG (≥150 mg/dL) |
14 |
10 (4.9) |
4 (3.5) |
0.7771 |
Low HDL-C (<40 mg/dL) |
6 |
6 (2.9) |
0 (0.0) |
– |